Eucharist Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Eucharist - Essay Example Earlier Christians used it as the synonym of Hebrew term berakkhah, meaning "a blessing". As the Christians opened the gates of vernacular versions, the terms were being translated into other languages in a sense to convey the restricted thoughts of the church rather then exact meanings, the term "Eucharist" also got effected and was restricted to the specific meaning of the ritual of the bread and wine1. Among the different churches, it is known by other names as well, such as, the Lord's Supper, Holy Communion, the Divine Liturgy, the mass, the blood sacrament or simply as sacrament2. As we look at the history of church, in early period there were not much scientific discussions going on , rather the major move in those times was when the shift of the authority of Church to the authority of the Bible. For Roman Catholics both the written and unwritten word of God was taken in authority with equal devotion. Written word was the Bible and unwritten was believed to be the tradition of the Church. For centuries the church remained content with a rough and ready arrangement of the canon but it could not live long. Tradition introduced the doctrines to believers and the scripture was used at the later stage to test and amplify those doctrines. After sharp discussions over it, the Council of Trent decided that the scripture and the traditions (divine and apostolic) are at the same level of authority, to be taken with equal devotion and veneration. But there were certain doctrines that were coming merely from the authority of traditions which became the object of reformi ng attack and Eucharist was one of them3. In the beginning, the Holy Eucharist was held as an ordinary meal in Christian household which they adopted from the Judaic culture. By the 2nd century C.E. the practice of sharing the Eucharist became a traditional sacrament honored as both, a Sacrament and a Sacrifice in the commemoration of Jesus the Christ. Since then, Christians began to gather for Holy Eucharistic ritual. The Catholic Eucharistic prayer and the formal consecration of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ became the central features of this sacrament in proceeding centuries4. The Middle-Ages is marked as the period of Dark Age in the Christian history. With the coming of Barbarians, the characteristics of earlier time began mingling and merging with the Barbarian. By the 800 C.E. the Pope at Rome got his control over the civil power and from there began the time when many doctrines sprang up. One of those doctrines understood to be developed by the western church was "transubstantiation" i.e. the doctrine that under the appearances of bread and wine, Jesus Christ is contained, offered, and received. The whole Christ is "really, truly, and substantially" present at the consecration of the elements of the Eucharist5. Eucharist and Christian denominations Eucharist is suspected to have been developed as part of the general doctrine of the sacraments. As we look behind in the history, the first full scale discussions over the issue in the Catholic west emerged out after 9th century and then it began to be celebrated. The Roman Catholic Church is the largest single grouping in terms of numbers of adherents. For them Pope is the spiritual leader and have the authority. On the other hand, reformed churches are those whose separate

Discussing The Challenges Faced In Business

Discussing The Challenges Faced In Business Most top management executive today are faced with challenge of creating better ways of doing business in doing this , the customers have becomes the direct focused .In fact ,most organisation today, opine that a companys success depend effectively on managing relationship with customers . In achieving this companies have adopted distinct electronic business application that would generally suit its mission and objective, E-business OBrien state is the use of the internet and other network application, to process data of customers and business partner within a new worked enterprise (OBrien, 2005) .Customer relationship management application has becomes a key element within e-business system which most organisation have already adopted. The Customer relationship management application has been developed by most software companies like oracle, Sales force ,SAP and Seibel .The focused of this paper though is greatly on CRM application called SAPCO developed by SAP and how a UK top home improvement companies ,BQ has been able to use it to develop that relationship with customers . 1.1 AIM AND OBJECTIVES The analysis is this paper will show amongst other thing, how this application has accounted in many ways for the success and grow of customers loyalty of BQ over the years ,it will also look at the business challenge associated with the use of the system within BQ and by extension, the use of similar Customer relationship management systems supports by SAP in other organisation and importantly too, analyzing the ethical issues associated with technology. 1.2 METHODOLOGY A lot of recent articles and text books played a significant role in this work .Internet sources too ,cannot be underestimated alongside comments ,by way of interview conducted with some with some BQ staff who were there when the system was introduced and other who have been using the system for years now. 2.0 CRM TECHNOLOGY AND SAP Customer relationship management technology can up in the mid twentieth century as a result of the most management executive identifying the need to improved relationship with customer and in that way improve business efficiency. The general maxim that the customers are always right seemed to take a more descriptive place as companies were now committed on doing whatever it takes to deliver the promise made (Nguyen et al 2007) .This is where technology comes into pay to create this needs business value. This is also where to business executive brainstorming on aborting the best application that would enhance better control over their operation. Customer relationship management application help organisation assess customers loyalty and profitability on measures such as repeat purchase, dollars spent and longevity (Popovice et al 2003) It is important to note that Customer relationship management is like other E-commerce application, a combination of people, process and technology that seek to understand a companys customers . (Chen et al 2003) SAP happens to be one of the leading vendors for enterprise resource planning system, ERP. ERP systems are software package that permit companies to have more actual control over their operation. A typical CRM application will encompass the entire element in the diagram in figure 1 below Sale Market and fulfillment -Cross sell -Up-sell Customer Service and support Contact and Account Management Fax e-mail Telephone web Prospect or customer sales (OBrien, 2005) The diagram in figure 1 above show clearly that indeed ,the customer is the focus and all other aspect revolved around it ,aimed at marking the customer happy and by extension the business gaining repeat visit through customer loyalty . Now, in this SAP major strength in this application, includes the extensive capability of the softwares functional these and many other reason may have formed that reason why a large organisation like BQ picked sap to provide application . 2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1.1 NEED FOR CRM As the power of the seller shifts to the buyer (Watson, 2002) organizations are realizing that competing with cheaper, better or different products is not sufficient, and competitive advantage cannot be achieved by purely differentiating products alone, but through enhanced customer relationships .At the same time, customers are experiencing low switching costs and could easily redirect their loyalty from one company to another (Holcom, 2001). Their expectations have also risen in recent years, making Customer relationship management a necessity in todays customer-driven business environment (S.L. Pan, J.N. Lee, 2003). Previous research has shown that it costs more to attract new customers than retain customers because of advertising and marketing costs .This means that, instead of differentiating products, organizations should differentiate customers (M. Nykamp, 2001) and they should shift their emphasis on market share to customer share (M. Rogers, 1993). Research has also indicated that organizations must not only retain their customers but also expand the useful lifespan of customers with the organization ( Zeithaml, 2002 ) by means of IT. Through such technologies, one-to-one relationships (D. Peppers and M. Roger, 1993).Value creation (Barnes, 2001) customer value analysis, product and website customization are possible on a scale that was not possible in the past (M. Nykamp, 2001). According to the 80/20 rule, 20% of customers provide organizations with 80% of sales (Ryals and Knox, 2001). This further emphasizes the need for organizations to retain and engage in long-term relationships with profitable customers to maximize profits (J. Galbreath, 1998). SAP IN BQ. SAPCO is an acronym in BQ that stands from SAP Custer ordering system .it is a system being used by BQ to process customers orders, monitor customer transaction and enhance better customer relationship. BQ China, part of Kingfisher Group plc, is one of the top three global decorations and building materials groups. The group employs the equivalent of more than 10,000 full-time staff, serving a marketplace worth around $40 billion. Just like all customer relationship system, SAPCO enable BQ to answer question around: what product or service are customer? How should we communicate with our customers? What are my customers favourite colours or what is my customers size? (Popovvich, 2003). With SAPCO these question would be answered within minutes from customers transaction histories and processes. Businesses and individuals working on refurbishment projects are prime sales opportunities for the Decoration Centers service at BQ China. However, the workflow designed to track these opportunities relied on paper-based notes of project requirements, status, sales and value, and staff kept diaries to make follow-up calls. Total contract sales data was collected and collated manually, a process that took months, before central departments could analyze the results of marketing campaigns (http://www-01.ibm.com). Before BQ introduced SAPCO, orders where made via paper and ink .And when I interviewed BQ staff they confirmed that it was and herculean task. Mistake and long queues were that order of the day the employees found it very difficult with the stress associated with manual way of taking order from customers. The introduction of SAPCO has made all this problem history, customer can now go any of B Q store through to the UK and have their orders complete within a few minutes. 3.1 THE SAPCO PROCESS A potential customer who wants to buy goods from any BQ stores across the UK come in to the shop and meet with a customer adviser who will help the customer to look for what hi want and help the customer to process the order in the system .before the can be done the customer must have a user name and password unique to the individual alone this what the employer will us in logging into the SAPCO application .in the case of the first time customer the customer adviser with request the customer to provide some personal details like name in full, house address, postcode, phone number these information will be keyed into the system after that ,the item number or the barcode number is keyed into the system and an order places . SAPCO will run through the system and identify where the item is, if it is in stock or needs to be ordered from outside the store and if so this process begins immediately. At this point again, the customer is asked about the quantity of goods to be ordered which i s entered into the system. A quotation is also prepared by SAPCO if required by customer. Once the order has been done successfully, the order is checked by both the BQ staff and the customer to make sure the order is correct. The place of delivery of the item is then confirmed from the customer. The charges of delivery are automatically calculated by SAPCO. Then after the customer is issued a sales advice note which he takes to the checkout stand to make payment. If the item is not in store, SAPCO automatically orders the item and also states the date of delivery. This most times takes between four to six weeks (www.diy.com). It also uses the sales confirmation to control its finances effectively. This is done by clients payment for items in BQ can automatically and payments to supplies are included in the central cash flow furcating reports generated by the SAPCO financial application. Again, if the customer had done business with BQ before then and wants information about his earlier order or make a new one the staff need just ask for the postcode and customer number which would be used in locating the transaction history of the customer. Queries if any are spotted and sorted. Another angle to this system is once the order has been picked up, the BQ staff must go back to the system, click on the item across the individuals name. He then goes to the collection section and confirms after which he prints two copies of the collection note. A copy of the collection note is kept by BQ and the other unsigned is given to the customer. This affirms to both BQ and the customer that item has been picked and transaction completed. One of the key benefits of SAPCO is that it links up all the departments in BQ so a customer can walk to any sales advisor and ask about an order. The necessary information is taken off the customer at the nearest computer system available and the order is immediately displayed. 3.2 BENEFIT OF SAPCO AS A CRM TOOL It has greatly improved the ordering system in BQ. The ordering of products is done faster thereby enhancing business. It has also enabled BQ to measure its customers loyalty better through the awareness of the history of customer transaction. It also manages customers documents better as it is fully integrated in the companys business system. Prior to the use of SAPCO customer details were held on paper records, with key project milestones used as the triggers to remind customers to return to the stores. It was difficult to share information between different departments, such as keeping a record of product recommendations and noting project status, and potential opportunities are not always pursued. Angela Dong, Senior Project Manager, comments, A customer usually spends some time consulting with BQ staff, and may visit other shops to compare prices or consider alternatives. With customer information held on paper, it was all too easy to miss the follow-up sales opportunity to invi te them to select BQ. Through this system and via the internet, customers have 24 hours access to their account. This enables them easily assess their account anytime. This has also helped reduced cost for the company. The usual logistics of making orders manually has been greatly reduced. Delivery of items and tracking of goods has improved greatly improved. This system works in a way that staffs handling delivery immediately see an order has been made and paid for; hence they are aware that there is another order waiting to be delivered. With all customer and project data captured electronically, BQ is able to identify the right time to follow up with customers and maximize sales opportunities. BQ central management is able to adjust marketing campaigns in response to actual sales made, respond to demand for specific products, and monitor payments and cash flow. The result is that BQ is able to tailor its business more closely to the needs of customers, creating a genuine competitive advantage. It also a solution that that would serve customers better by providing detailed knowledge of stock levels and replenishment times, and, of course, accurate pricing, across all our stores. Customers are the most valuable assets of any company especially during this present economic situation and which SAPCO helps improves the volume of customers. According to Ian Anthony, Technical Infrastructure Programme Manager, BQ the customer ordering system in particular we have seen a huge increase in the volume of customer orders going through since the systems been implemented. The data gathered from SAPCO helps BQ to track projects status and ensure high quality which ultimately helps to improve customer satisfaction level. Due to the implementation of SAPCO information is completely transparent and managers are able to adjust sales and marketing strategies depending on actual data from current purchasing trends rather than having to wait for data to be complied by hand at the store level and later sent to the head office which normally take up to three months. (http://www-01.ibm.com). There is also an immediate visibility of the number of orders or contract which in other words means that SAPCO has improved both management and customer efficiency. 3.3 CHALLENGES OF SAPCO IN BQ The challenges of SAPCO differ from staff to staff. While some staffs believe is to be a total disaster others feel that there are ups and downs associated with its effective use. Some of which are listed below: The speed of the internet which mainly depends on the network providing the connection as been identified as one of the major challenges. There are some times a completion of order could prove a difficult task as it could take up to ten minutes to move from one page to another. This customer is made in this instance to wait for an undue period of time. For the system to work efficiently a stable and secure internet network must be available. Another big issue is the human side associated with it. Most have not come to properly appreciate the system so sometimes information is incorrectly entered. This is properly due to lack of enough training on the system or the staffs personal decision not to imbibe proper procedure. Data Collection And Processing Management Perspective Business management most times is centred on decision making. However, this aspect within most organisations is the central role of managers. Managers are faced daily with the challenges of coming up with processes that would enhance the effective running of the business. The use of information systems like the CRM technology has formed a critical role of this responsibility and to a large extend has improved this role. Most of the decisions managers have to make now have become web based either through the internet or networking applications which foster the information processing. According to Loudon, managers can now automate certain decision procedure (for example , determining the highest price that can be charged for a product to maintain market share or the highest amount of materials to maintain in inventory to maximise efficient customer response and product profitability). Loudon Loudon 2002 pg. 404). Organisations have a hierarchy of decision makers. This hierarchy in many ways enhances the smooth running of companies. Within the organisation there are the following: Strategic Management The manager here are concerned with decision around the long time value of the company and most times described as unstructured (George Steiner). Tactical Management- Managers here are concerned with medium term planning. They monitor the performance of the organisation, control budget, allocate resources and set budget (Bocij 2003 pg.18). Operational Management- Manager here directly handles the running of the business. Decisions here are highly structured as they affect the business directly and are felt at the moment it is taken. Managers here implements budget and apply them to business. For instance the decision by BQ to adopt SAPCO as a customer relationship management tool for such a large organisation would have been exclusively strategic. However, setting out the budget and planning ahead for the system would have been tactical and implementation would have been by the operation managers. Most CRM application has failed due to poor business management. However, BQs SAPCO has been in use for more than seven years and it is still recording success on a daily basis. Managers can now ascertain the items that are in great need and hence proactively stock them. SAPCO greatly supports operational and tactical decisions in BQ. This SAP enabled system also provides report, giving managers a comprehensive view of the firms performance. It also features corporate performance metrics, simulations and planning tools. (Loudon Loudon 2002 pg 423). Through this system, management can easily view their performance level and also the areas that need to be improved upon. As an enterprise resource planning system, SAPCO brings all the units together into one entity and thereby having a better control of operation. This ultimately provides a better link with their supplier and distributors hence the main goal of servicing the customer is achieved. The integration of business systems has enabled management reach beyond their own corporate walls to better connect with suppliers, distributors and end customers. (Gupta 2000). Sales are better managed especially with the use of the internet although this could also be a shortcoming since it means the system is dependent on the internet connection which it has no power over. However, the internet greatly supports the application. Managers at different levels can track sales at different locations and this gives them a better understanding of the business irrespective of how large the organisation maybe. The rewards of an effective CRM technology like SAPCO are indeed enormous. Steve Gilman, BQI director and BQ UK board director BQI has described the benefits of adopting SAP Retail as better customer availability and cost reductions. Gilman says, We can record sales and margin accurately and as a result have boosted our margins. We have given ourselves a lead over our competitors.(www.ciber.com.au/). Business chief executives can now stay ahead of the competition with greater focus on the customer than the competitors. On the management side cost are reduces and more revenue is made from increased sales. Ethical Challenges In Customer Relationship Management When a new technology is introduced into a business, it comes with its challenges. Its use even creates more challenges which in many ways affect its users. Ethics is one area of great concern to effective business management and information technology most effectively. Ethics refers to the principles of right and wrong that individual, acting as free moral agents, can use to make choice to guide their behaviour. (Laudon Laudon 2002 pg 468) Business ethics is crucial especially to management. It is something managers confront with everyday and have to deal with as the situation presents itself. OBrien speaks of a situation in which he states that as a business professional, you have a responsibility to promote ethical uses of information technology in the workplace. (2005 pg.380). In todays business world, issues of ethics range around privacy, intellectual property, security and even safety issues. Managers must make sure that its stakeholders interests are well protected when issues of this sort arise. 5.1 Information Systems And Ethics 5.1.1 Privacy- The issues of privacy have become one of growing concern as regards information systems in todays business environment. Alter identifies two crucial areas in this: personal privacy, which talks about the ability of an individual to avoid unwanted instructions into personal time. Space and property (2002, pg.287), and the information privacy which deals with the the ability of the individual to determined when, how and to what extent personal information is communicated to others (2007, pg 287). Privacy issues generally can be spotted in a lot of areas, today organisations, through use of the intranet within offices, can monitors mails that staff send across the organisation and also find out the sites they are visiting. This in a lot of ways infringes on their rights of privacy as individuals. That is why most individuals how prefer to send all private mails from their homes. However, the CRM technology is one area that this becomes very crucial. Companies in the process of conduction business with customers, gather a lot of personal information of its customers, for instance BQ, with its SAPCO system. Most of customers personal details are taken by the system. It now dwells on managers and staffs alike to make sure that this information of customers are well protected from abuse. However, over the years there had been codes like the code of fair information practices (Alter 2002, pg.290) created in the US to ensure that customers are to large extent in control of information released from being used for other things without their consent. 5.1.2 Health Issues- This is a very critical issue especially as information technology in the work place raises a variety of health issues. Heavy use of computer is reportedly causing health problems like job stress, damaged arm and neck muscles, eye strain radiation exposure and even death by computerised caused death. O Brien 2005, pg 395). There are times when placing an order for customers on the system can take ages and these in cases are linked to a slow system of internet and how voluminous the order is. In tackling this issue, what BQ has done is making sure that staffs have at least two breaks within a particular working day to ease of the stress that could be associated with this. A day off in the week is also given to staff. In this way, they probably foreseen the issues greatly minimised. 5.1.3 Property Issue- In information technology, this is often referred to as intellectual property which literally links to ownership of an idea or a product. This is very important in business. However, the internet raises some new challenges (Rowley 2002, pg. 244). Issues to be considered in terms of this include trade secrets, copyright and patents. a. Trade secrets- These are very crucial corporate issues as most times. They are associated with companys brand image and identity. They are often regarded as assets that if infringed upon can be sued in the court of law. In 2007, Oracle sued and accused SAP of hacking into its computer networks and stealing vital product information (BBC News 2007). Prevention this now, companies who own products must find ways of making sure that employees protect these from competitors and public generally. b. Copyright- These refer to a law or statutory grant that protects creators of intellectual property from having their works copied by others for any purpose for a period of 28 years. Laudon Laudon 2002, pg. 479). Despite the fact that companies like Oracle, Siebel, Sap, Salesforce all developed CRM. However, there are particular areas which are unique to this companies that cannot be taken from them. Also companies that use SAP products like BQ (SAPCO) and Virgin cosmetics (MYSAP) all have customised products which are peculiar to their companies which must be protected. 6.0 Security Management In Information System It is not enough to create systems within organisation, management must put certain measures in place to ensure that these information are well secured.

Mothers, Daughters and Common Ground in Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club Ess

Mothers, Daughters and Common Ground in Amy Tan’s The Joy Luck Club Here is a journey that not only started "a thousand Li away", but from generations upon generations of tradition. The Joy Luck Club travels over time and continents to present the background and turmoil of eight amazing women. All of these women have had to deal with the issues of culture, gender, and family, each in their own way, yet all similarly. Amy Tan dedicates her novel to her mother with the comment "You asked me once what I would remember†¦ This, and much more." Each of the mothers in Tan's novel wanted to teach their daughters the lessons learned in China while giving them the comforts of America. But language and culture barriers diverge the women until they were almost lost to each other. Each character had to take their own journey to finally understand what drove them apart and find their common ground. Each Mother brought baggage with her across the pacific. They wanted to teach their daughters from all of their pain and suffering, but were never able to communicate the complexities of their life. Suyuan Woo struggles to explain herself to her daughter "'This feather may look worthless, but it comes from afar and carries with it all my good intentions.' And she waited, year after year, for the day she could tell her daughter this in perfect American English"(3). The journey that brought Suyuan to America was long and full of hardship. From the Japanese invasion of Kweilin were she lost her husband and had to leave her daughters, to her assimilation in America. Suyuan wanted to teach her daughter about these hardships so that she could understand the extent of her potential. " My mother believed you could be anything you wanted to be in Ameri... ... finding her sisters and in doing this fulfilling her own. Just as Jing-Mei found what made her Chinese, Lindo discovered what made her American. "I was so much like my mother. She did not see how my face changed over the years. How my eyes began following the American way"(293). She is a mixture, no longer one hundred percent Chinese, yet she has held her culture with her throughout her life in America. "Not only traditional and not only modern, not just Chinese and not just American, but Chinese-American"(Reece). This is the same discovery that Waverly and Jing-Mei come to, they finally understand were their mother's have come from and the history brought with them from far away. And the mother's best intentions are no longer like the illusive mountains covered in fog, left in China. Works Cited Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. New York: Random House, 1989.

History of Exxon Mobil Essay

Founded by John D. Rockefeller (1839-1937) in 1870, The Exxon Corporation developed from another oil company giant, which is Standard Oil Company. Reported monopoly of Standard oil over the oil industry in the early twentieth century proceeded to succession of criticism from politicians and even journalists. However, Exxon still remains the third largest company in the United States and reportedly to be the seventh largest in the world. (Fortune, April 28, 1997). It was Rockefeller anticipated a big potential of refining Pennsylvania crude oil. However internal combustion engines were not yet fully developed a substitute can be used which is kerosene to fuel lanterns. When Standard Oil was formed, it integrated all of the docks, railroad cars, warehouses, lumber resources, and other facilities it needed into its operations. Lucrative deals with railroads were made and that drove smaller refiners out of business. (Sampson, A. , 1975) Around 1878 when Rockefeller and partner Henry Flagler (1830-1913) were in control of most of the nation’s oil refining business. Because of its booming business in oil industry, Rockefeller’s was considered one of the five wealthiest men in the country. (Nevins, A. , 1953) In 1882 Rockefeller and his associates established the first trust in the United States, which consolidated all of Standard Oil Company’s assets in the states under the New York Company, in which Rockefeller was the major shareholder. (Nevins, A. , 1953) Standard Oil began producing, refining and distributing oil in 1880’s. Overseas trade had begun mostly in kerosene to Great Britain. The trust encountered challenges with the Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890, followed by an 1892 Ohio Supreme Court decision which forbade the trust to operate Standard of Ohio. The company then moved its base of its operations to New Jersey, which in 1899 became home to Standard Oil of New Jersey, or Jersey Standard. Jersey Standard later became Exxon Corporation (Wall, B. , 1988) In the 1920’s, as the supply of crude oil began shifting its way from the United States and Latin America to the Middle East, Jersey Standard and other companies effectively used the same monopolistic practices that John D.  Rockefeller had used; Standard Oil exploited its rich resources in Iraq, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. This made oil prices stayed low and the United States and Europe became extremely dependent on oil fuels for industry and automobiles. (Nevins, A. , 1953) The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) was formed to protect the interests of the producing countries and this led to Jersey Standard sought other sources of crude oil. The company discovered oil fields in Alaska’s Prudhoe Bay and in the North Sea. Around the same time, in 1972, Standard Oil of New Jersey officially changed its name to Exxon Corporation. (Wall, B. , 1988) As the OPEC-induced oil shortage depleted much of Exxon’s reserves made them experience financial difficulties; and a lot of people suffered from this cause. In 1989 when a drunk Captain of the oil tanker Exxon Valdez ran aground in Alaska’s Prince William Sound, doing immeasurable damage to the wildlife and to the company’s public image. Eleven million gallons of oil spilled in the Alaskan harbor this made Exxon lost a share of the world oil market to its competitor, Royal Dutch/Shell in 1990. However this didn’t stopped Exxon’s business when they agreed to a $15 billion development of three oil wells in Russia. (Clarke, 1997) Overall, Exxon started in the United States, which started as a regional marketer of kerosene that evolved to the biggest publicly traded petroleum and petrochemical project in the world. Their best known brand names are Exxon, Esso and Mobil. Such products that drive modern transportation, power cities, lubricate industry and provide petrochemical building blocks that lead to thousands of consumer goods.

Policy makers

This also refers to both the dynamic discussions that continuously take place across a idà ©e range Of curricular issues and the evolutionary thinking about concepts and approaches in curriculum development. Changes in society constantly demand new knowledge and skills and require the continuous development of our educational system. This book focuses on the following questions: How do processes of curriculum of curriculum development evolve? What actually is curriculum? And how to ensure the quality of curricular products?This book also provide the teachers, educators, policy makers and other parties involved in educational development with a clear and concise introduction onto the tricks of the trade of curriculum development. CHAPTER 1 CURRICULUM AND CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT The very short definition of curriculum as â€Å"a plan for learning†, used by the American Hills Tab in 1 962 is reflected by related terms in many languages, including the classical Dutch term learn wh ich permits all sort of elaboration for specific curricular levels, contexts and representations.A first, extremely useful, distinction appears to be a specification of the level of curriculum and curriculum development namely: SUPRA, MACRO, MESS, MICRO, ANNA. A second, clarifying distinction concerns the different forms in which curricula can be represented in the following three levels: intended, implemented and attained. The core and the nineteenths of the so-called Spider Web refers to the ten parts of the curriculum, each concerning an aspect of learning and the learning programmer for learners.The components: Rationale, Aims and Objectives, Content, Learning Activities, Teacher Role, Materials and Resources, Grouping, Location, Time and Assessment are basis for curriculum design and innovation. Curriculum Development is focused on the improvement and innovation of education. During this process, desires and ideals are incorporated in a cyclic process of design, implementation, and evaluation to achieve concrete results in practice.This chapter describes the processes of curriculum development at three levels within the educational system: national level (macro), school level (mess), and pupil level (micro). Curriculum development at macro level focuses on the development of generic curricular frameworks. An important challenge in the development of these frameworks is to meet with the great diversity of societal demands on education.Schools build on synergy between curriculum development, teacher development and school organization development. For curriculum innovation to be successful, it is important that the school's innovation ambitions are in line with the teachers' commitment and their willingness to change, the abilities of the different teams, the culture and the infrastructure of the school. Curricular products that are developed at micro level include lesson trials and resources.For teachers who strive to put the innovation into practice, less on materials that are exemplary are important carriers of the intended innovation. The quality of education is often subject for debate. There are different ways in which people assess the quality of curriculum: relevance, consistency, practicality and effectiveness. The quality criteria more or less build on one another. Whether a curriculum effective will also depend on the practicality – can it be implemented as intended? ND On the relevance and consistency of the intended objectives and content components. In the list of quality criteria a distinction has been made between the expected and the actual practicality and the effectiveness of a curriculum. Concerning teaching materials, for example, the expected practicality and effectiveness can be assessed through screening of the materials by teachers. In order to develop a high-quality curriculum, evaluation is of great importance.During the curriculum development process, the emphasis on implementation reveals itself on t he following ways: analysis of lessons from past and of current use in practice, intensive deliberation with the target group and other stakeholders, formative evaluation of preliminary designs, assessment in an increasingly wide circle of schools, formulation of recommendations for the professional support of teacher and the other team, and contribute to the professional development of educational us providers of institutions that can organize activities.Moreover, the placement of the school's organization and culture is also essential to ensure sustainable curriculum changes within the school. Collaboration among all sections and levels in and around the school is an important precondition for sustainable educational development. Harvests and Shirley (2009) also draw attention to the importance Of broad ownership and the shared responsibility for sustainable innovation. The active involvement of relevant social organizations- from parents to trade and industry – will also f oster broad public support for and commitment to innovations.

The History of Ag essays

The History of Ag essays European farming practices are quite different to that of Aboriginal land management practices. European farming yield produce through the practices of cultivation of crops and the breeding and raising of livestock. This kind of farming was very land intensive and required vast amounts of land. Early settlers in Australia cleared enormous areas of vegetation to create pastoral and farming land. Erosion was a result of overgrazing. It increased the extent of bare areas, so that less rainfall seeped into the soil and grasses did not grow well in the drier soil conditions. In contrast, the Aboriginal people have successfully managed their land for at least 40,000 years. This land provides the primary resources for clothes, food, building materials and all the other items needed for a healthy sustainable life. Traditional aboriginal land use practices in Australia use resources in such a way that they are renewed and not exhausted. Apart from using fire for cooking and warmth, Aborigines used fire when hunting, to flush game out into the open. They also burned vegetation in order to initiate fresh growth of grasses, which served to attract browsing animals to the area, thereby improving their hunting prospects. In some areas burning was used to encourage the growth of important edible plants. Firestick farming created a varied array of neighbouring habitats at different stages of regeneration after fire. By creating belts of firebreaks and of areas low in fuel density, firestick farming lessened the occurrence of disastrous wildfires of the type Australia so often has had to contend with in the last century. Eel-farming occurred in Western Victoria. A large number of stone races, canals, traps and walls were built forming an ingenious, labour-efficient aqua-culture that supported whole villages of stone houses. Similar intensification of food resources occurred in coastal areas where fish trap structures were...

Story in Spanish About the Poinsettia

Story in Spanish About the Poinsettia Improve your Spanish this holiday season with this story about the poinsettia, the rare U.S holiday tradition that originated south of the border.   La flor de Nochebuena Durante la temporada navideà ±a, la flor de Nochebuena es muy popular en Estados Unidos. Pero muchos no saben que la flor es originaria de Mà ©xico. En espaà ±ol, la flor tiene muchos nombres como la flor de Nochebuena, la flor de Pascua, la flor de fuego, la estrella de Navidad y la corona de los Andes. Los indà ­genas mexicanos la llamaban cuetlazochitl, que significa la flor de pà ©talos resistentes como el cuero. Para los aztecas, la flor roja era sà ­mbolo de la sangre de los sacrificios que ofrendaban al sol. En los EEUU, la flor es conocida como la poinsettia en honor de Joel Poinsett, botnico y el primer embajador estadounidense a Mà ©xico. En Mà ©xico hay una leyenda sobre la flor. Se dice que habà ­a una nià ±a muy pobre que lloraba porque no tenà ­a regalo para dar al nià ±ito Jesà ºs en el altar de su iglesia. Un ngel escuchà ³ sus oraciones, y le dijo que cortara las ramas de algunas plantas cerca del camino. Cuando llegà ³ la nià ±a al altar, al contacto con sus lgrimas, de las ramas brotaron bellas flores rojas y resplandecientes. Eran las primeras flores de Nochebuena. Ya tenà ­a regalo adecuado para el nià ±ito Jesà ºs. Translation With Grammar and Vocabulary Notes Durante la temporada navideà ±a,During the Christmas season, Navideà ±o  is the adjectival form of  Navidad, the word for Christmas. The  feminine form  is used here  because  temporada  is feminine. la flor de Nochebuena es muy popular en Estados Unidos.the poinsettia is very popular in the United States. Nochebuena, a combination of  noche  (night) and  buena  (good) is the word used for Christmas Eve. Although the phrase  flor de Nochebuena  could be translated literally as Christmas Eve flower, doing so would not be as clear here as using the English name of the flower. Pero  muchos  no  saben  que la flor es originaria de Mà ©xico.But many dont know the flower is originally from Mexico. The phrase  ser originario de  is frequently used to indicate where something originates. Note that  originario  (or the feminine form,  originaria,  in the original sentence here) is an adjective, not an adverb as in the English translation. Note also that the word  que  is left untranslated in English. In this case, it could have been translated as that, a word often omitted in English. But in Spanish,  que  is essential. En espaà ±ol, la flor tiene muchos nombresIn Spanish, the flower has many names como la flor de Navidad, la flor de Pascua, la flor de fuego, la estrella de Navidad y la corona de los Andes.such as the Christmas flower, the  Pascua  flower, the fire flower, the Christmas star and the crown of the Andes. The word  Pascua  originally referred to the Jewish Passover. In Christianity, it came later to refer to Easter, whose timing is theologically connected with Passover. Los indà ­genas mexicanos la llamaban  cuetlazochitl,The natives of Mexico called it  cuetlazochitl, Indà ­gena, meaning an indigenous person, is one of those unusual words that end in  -a  in both masculine and feminine forms. In the above sentence,  la  is used to mean it because it refers to a feminine noun,  la flor. If the reference had been to a masculine noun,  lo  would have been used. que significa la flor de pà ©talos resistentes como el cuero.which means the flower with petals tough like leather. Note that in Spanish, the period comes outside the  quotation marks, the opposite of what is done in U.S. English. Note also that the  de  in the definition is translated as with, even though  de  typically is translated as of. This provides a more natural translation. Para los aztecas, la flor roja era sà ­mbolo del sangre de los sacrificios que ofrendaban al Sol.For the Aztecs, the red flower was a symbol of the blood of the sacrifices they offered to the sun. The verbs in this sentence are in the  imperfect tense, as is usually the case with verbs that refer to events or repeated actions that occur over a long period of time. En los EEUU, la flor es conocida como la  poinsettia  en honor de Joel Poinsett, botnico y el primer embajador estadounidense a Mà ©xico.In the U.S., the flower is known as the poinsettia in honor of Joel Poinsett, a botanist and first U.S. ambassador to Mexico. EEUU  is the abbreviation for  Estados Unidos. See how the letters are doubled as is often done in an  abbreviation of a plural noun. En Mà ©xico hay una leyenda sobre la flor.In Mexico there is a legend about the flower. Hay  is a form of  haber  that is very commonly used to mean there is. The past tense, as in the following sentence, is  habà ­a. Se dice que habà ­a una nià ±a muy pobreIt is said that there was a very poor girl Se  dice, a  reflexive  form of  decir, is a common way of saying it is said or they say. que lloraba porque no tenà ­a regalo para dar al nià ±ito Jesà ºs en el altar de su iglesia.who cried because she didnt have a gift to give to the baby Jesus on the altar of her church. Nià ±ito  is a  diminutive  form of  nià ±o, a word for boy. Un ngel escuchà ³ sus oraciones, y le dijo que cortara las ramas de algunas plantas cerca del camino.An angel heard her prayers and told her to cut the branches of the plants near the path. The verb  cortara  is in the  imperfect subjunctive  form, because the  subjunctive  form typically is used with  commands and requests  that follow  que. The  le  in this sentence is an  indirect object pronoun; to cut the branches is what the angel said, but the girl is whom the angel told it to. Cuando llegà ³ la nià ±a al altar, al contacto con sus lgrimas, de las ramas brotaron bellas flores rojas y resplandecientes.When the girl arrived at the altar, upon contact with her tears beautiful and brilliant red flowers came forth from the branches. Use of  al  followed by an noun, seen here in the phrase  al contacto, is a common way of saying in Spanish that something occurs as the result of another event. Also note how the word order in this sentence is different than what it would be in English. Eran las primeras flores de Nochebuena.These were the first poinsettias. The translation of They were ... also could have been used. As the  subject is often omitted  in Spanish sentences, you can let context determine the smoothest translation. Ya tenà ­a regalo adecuado para el nià ±ito Jesà ºs.Now she had a suitable gift for the baby Jesus. Ya  is a very common adjective whose translation varies widely depending on the context. The adjective  adecuado  is obviously related to the English adequate (making it a  cognate) but doesnt have the same connotation.

Barbecue vs. Barbeque

Barbecue vs. Barbeque Barbecue vs. Barbeque Barbecue vs. Barbeque By Maeve Maddox We all have our lists of language peeves. Most likely, no two of our lists are the same. The reader whose email prompted this post can’t stand the spelling barbeque: One of my pet hates (I have more than a few) is barbeque†. When I hear that this spellinghas entered into common usage I become uncommonly angry. I have entered it into the NGram and [discovered] the wrong spelling has gradually gained ground and the right spelling is declining. Is this the future of language? I can sympathize with the pain a fellow language lover feels when faced with one of his peeves, but I have to admit that barbeque doesn’t even register as a â€Å"one† on my scale of linguistic suffering. I grew up in a town in which the places specializing in this type of cooking spell it Bar-B-Q on their signs and BBQ on their menus. Barbeque looks fine to me. The first glimmer of barbeque on the Ngram Viewer shows in 1893. BBQ is there as early as 1889. Barbeque begins its rise in the 1960s; BBQ in the 1970s. Barbecue, however, remains far and away the most common spelling in printed books. Something that may have contributed to the popularization of the barbeque spelling could be a false etymology that once made the rounds on the Web and may pre-date email hoaxes. According to this creative explanation, the word derives from a French practice of roasting a goat whole, â€Å"from beard to tail,† i.e., â€Å"barbe (beard) (to) queue (tail). In fact, barbecue entered English as a borrowing from Spanish barbacoa. The word went through various spelling permutations before settling down to the standard spelling of barbecue. The OED shows spellings documented at different dates: Barbacu (1661) Barbicu (1690) Barbecu (1697) Barbicue (1773) In his diaries, George Washington (1732-1799) spelled it both Barbicue and Barbecue. The Spanish got the word from the Arawakan word barbakoa, â€Å"framework of sticks.† This was a raised wood structure that served two functions for the Indians: 1. to sleep on; 2. to cure meat on. The meaning â€Å"an outdoor meal of roasted meat or fish as a social entertainment† is from 1733. The meaning â€Å"a grill for cooking over an open fire† dates from 1931. The verb â€Å"to barbecue† has been in use since 1690, but its first meaning was â€Å"to dry or cure meat.† Now it means â€Å"to broil or roast.† A Google search brings up more hits for barbecue, but barbeque is not far behind: barbecue 13,200,000 barbeque 12,400,000 Bottom line: The standard spelling is barbecue, but barbeque is a recognized North American variant. British speakers, including Australians, are advised to stick to barbecue, but Americans and Canadians have the option to spell it either way: Merriam-Webster and the Oxford Canadian Dictionary of Current English both list barbeque without prejudice. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Homograph ExamplesWhen to Form a Plural with an ApostropheTreatment of Words That Include â€Å"Self†

Healthy food can be unhealthy for your wallet Essay

Healthy food can be unhealthy for your wallet - Essay Example Healthy foods are associated with the desired nutrients by the body. According to Michele Obama, healthy foods constituted of fresh fruits and vegetables in their time. It is as a result of this assertion that greens, as well as fruits, are very expensive today. The farmers, as well as the businessmen, know that these types of foods are in high demand in the market. As a result of this, they hike their prices in order to make a profit. In her speech, Michele also claimed that parents at her time used to cover long distances in search of healthy foods such as lettuce and fresh fruits for their children. From Michele’s assertion, one can deduce that the access to healthy foods is associated with a lot of expenses. For instance, for one to access fruits, he or she has to spend some amount of money as fare to the market. Additionally, the preparation of healthy foods is also very involving; it requires the observance of step by step procedures. It is as a result of such expenses t hat healthy foods are un-pocket friendly today.In the past, majority of the parents had small pieces of farms for fruits and vegetables. The availability of the fruits and vegetables in the backyards not only reduced the proximity of the healthy foods, but also made them very available. Unlike in the past, very few people have backyards for vegetables and fruits today. The rise in population, as well as advancement in technology, has led to the diversion of land use to other practices. It is as a result of this that healthy foods are very scarce in the market.

Postmodernism in animation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Postmodernism in animation - Research Paper Example Baudrillard and Frederic Jameson to popular animation series such as Beavis and Butt-head, Drawn Together and Harvey Birdman that aimed to target adult audiences with their content and themes. The first part of the paper intends to explore the specific theories presented by commentators on postmodernism, in order to apply the elements of the concepts with regards to the animated television series under discussion thereby concluding that aspects of postmodernism and its cultural components are visible in the animated representations of popular culture. Lyotard’s description and assessment of the world, in his essay titled â€Å"The Postmodern Condition† puts forward the limitations of believing in the positivity associated with a social and cultural agreement, thereby, postulating that postmodernism should in fact strive to work against the foundations of this widespread consensus which is an unattainable or utopian state due to the aspects related to the emergence and progress of popular culture which preaches plurality rather than singularity, this assertion led to the development of the concept of metanarratives and recognized the need to promote knowledge that is held by the general population rather than what is advocated by dominant cultural and political forces through the means of Grand narratives (til B.A-prà ³fs and Bjà ¶rnsson 2006). However, for Baudrillard (1994) the notions of postmodernism are associated with the representation of what he terms as hyperreality, such that in the society of today symbols or signs are no longer associable to their existence in reality but due to the emergence of a simulacrum can be traced to the subsistence of other elements. Perhaps, the most viable link of Baudrillard’s theory of hyperreality can be traced to the projections of media such as film and television which create the hyperreality and then propogate it (til B.A-prà ³fs and Bjà ¶rnsson 2006). With its comprehensions of society and culture, postmodernism has

Against Green Energy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Against Green Energy - Essay Example The cost of subsidizing green energy is therefore spread to individual and corporate taxpayers. The economic condition is likely to worsen due to the fact that generational effects of green energy utilize funds that could be pumped into other developmental projects. Green energy subsidies suppress sustainable development goals and objectives. This is more so when these subsidies increase energy consumption. With increased consumption of energy, wastes from such consumption would increase negative effects on the environment. The process is therefore prone to exacerbate harmful energy effects on environmental welfare. Burden to maintain low pollution levels in the environment is likely to increase and government spending doubles in that case (Douglas F, et al. 2000, p.60–66). Subsidies will be made available for green energy, but government and corporate efforts to combat environmental pollution will remain unchanged. Organizational operating costs should not be covered through subsidies. However, this has been the characteristic phenomenon in the use of subsidies. Organizations that formulate green energy projects and want to implement them seeks for subsidies. Rather than assisting companies to implement such projects, the subsidies should be used for the purposes of enhancing accessibility to contemporary sources of energy. The focus should be directed to households whose access to modern sources is limited as well as to those who cannot afford it. Since this is not the case, subsidies for green energy are argued against. World Bank and World Resource Institute have as well argued against subsidies for green energy in the same context (Brown, 2006, p.

History of Art and Visual Culture 1400 - 1900 Essay

History of Art and Visual Culture 1400 - 1900 - Essay Example Conversely, the Visual Art is regarded as a form of intellectual and cognitive learning skills and experiences. For example, the construction of the circle, rectangular drawings, and painting composition procedures are described to be having ability of demanding high judgment values from the painters. The body entombment was presented in its original size, shape, kind and color complying with the law of nature. In addition, the measurements and the proportions of the living creatures that were around d the death served as a point of reference in making the Entombment justification to be a real event (Zirpolo, 2008). However, death body manifested itself when the limbs and other parts of the body could not be able to perform any duty of life function. Nevertheless, apart from the color, size, function and the kind composition abilities evaluated, individual confirming dignity of the entombed body was addressed. For instance, the clothing used in the death event presented type, functio n and dignity, a factor that was very essential in the ancient painting. The Raphael entombment picture was pleasing and appealing; it had a mixture of old men and youths without indicating a virtual emptiness. Additionally, the attitude and gestures were not appearing in the entombed feature as the mourners were in full control of the entombed movement activities (harmony in accordance with the action). The entombment emotions were presented moving in different directions presenting grief and anger.

North Korea faces an ongoing food and humanitarian crisis. As a State Essay

North Korea faces an ongoing food and humanitarian crisis. As a State Department planner, outline the political pros and cons - Essay Example Hopefully this will give an indication to the regime that the American government has a vested interest in the welfare of the people regardless of the political differences and the relationship between the two countries. Assistance to North Korea can in the long run eliminate the threat of nuclear power by the country. The February 2007 agreement between the USA and North Korea in the denuclearization process within the six-party framework should offer some glimmer of hope to the USA. The rewards given to North Korea such as promises of food and energy support should work towards an eventual change in behavior. Although North Korea is still continuing with their nuclear program the six-party talks and tangible support and promises should be consistent. In January 2009 North Korea hinted that it would curtail its nuclear program if there was an establishment of formal diplomatic relations with the USA, among other stipulations. The ultimate objective of assistance to North Korea should be for the basic human rights reasons. Humanitarian aid should be targeted at the suffering population rather than trying to create an impression on the political leaders. Aid is valuable from the western viewpoint of human rights but should not be expected to change the policies of Kim Jong While on the one hand humanitarian aid will and should benefit the people, it can also unfortunately create some advantage for the ruling regime. The totalitarian nature of the regime makes it possible for any international body to have a direct responsibility on the distribution of aid. Depending on the type of aid this can be manipulated by the political directorate and giving them more strength and power instead of providing relief for the population. History has shown that an increase of humanitarian aid to the country has not deterred the hostilities and attacks on human rights of the citizens. The

Journal Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 33

Journal - Assignment Example He tries to show that one does not need to live in denial, but can accept his/her condition by living positively. The writer of this book shows that cancer patients can do what cancer-free people can do. A cancerous patient does not need to feel that it is the end, but another challenge of life. Hitchens points out that a patient needs to take medication very seriously. He argues that a chemotherapy, radiation or surgeries are the main treatments that a cancerous patient may encounter (Hitchens 619). Hitchens argues that people do not have cancer, but rather battle cancer. The author implies that the treatment of cancer is a process, and a patient must follow in order to be healthy. Hitchens is a good example of persons battling with cancer. With a positive mentality, Hitchens shows that a cancerous person can easily recover. It shows that cancerous patients must have hope and get the required treatment. Cancer patients should not think that they cannot enjoy life just as cancer-free

North Korea faces an ongoing food and humanitarian crisis. As a State Essay

North Korea faces an ongoing food and humanitarian crisis. As a State Department planner, outline the political pros and cons - Essay Example Hopefully this will give an indication to the regime that the American government has a vested interest in the welfare of the people regardless of the political differences and the relationship between the two countries. Assistance to North Korea can in the long run eliminate the threat of nuclear power by the country. The February 2007 agreement between the USA and North Korea in the denuclearization process within the six-party framework should offer some glimmer of hope to the USA. The rewards given to North Korea such as promises of food and energy support should work towards an eventual change in behavior. Although North Korea is still continuing with their nuclear program the six-party talks and tangible support and promises should be consistent. In January 2009 North Korea hinted that it would curtail its nuclear program if there was an establishment of formal diplomatic relations with the USA, among other stipulations. The ultimate objective of assistance to North Korea should be for the basic human rights reasons. Humanitarian aid should be targeted at the suffering population rather than trying to create an impression on the political leaders. Aid is valuable from the western viewpoint of human rights but should not be expected to change the policies of Kim Jong While on the one hand humanitarian aid will and should benefit the people, it can also unfortunately create some advantage for the ruling regime. The totalitarian nature of the regime makes it possible for any international body to have a direct responsibility on the distribution of aid. Depending on the type of aid this can be manipulated by the political directorate and giving them more strength and power instead of providing relief for the population. History has shown that an increase of humanitarian aid to the country has not deterred the hostilities and attacks on human rights of the citizens. The

Hurrican Katrina Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Hurrican Katrina - Essay Example As the report declares Bush, Congress, the mayor - each of them are symptoms of a bigger problem, that we don't have accountability for disasters or challenges of this scale. That's all the public wants in trying times - accountability ... Lovin added that it's too convenient to blame one branch of government when they are all, at some level, failing people. This paper stresses that Lovin's sentiments seem liberal and noble on the surface. We do have a human need to assign blame in "trying times," real accountability does seem lacking at multiple levels of our government, and we shouldn't go on a witch hunt to appease public outrage by scapegoating one person or one department of government, when the culpability is much more diffuse. This is certainly a moral sentiment, and an appropriate stance to take in the absence of compelling facts to the contrary. However, facts to the contrary can be found. And the culpability in this matter is not equally shared. The United States government has known for decades that large scale natural disasters necessarily go beyond the response capabilities of state and local authorities. According to the Fort Worth Star Telegram, it is likewise well-known, by our top disaster planning experts, that a quick mobilization of the United States active military is the only adequate response in such disasters.

What are the causes and effects of unemployment

What are the causes and effects of unemployment Unemployment  occurs when a person is able and willing to work but currently without  work.  The prevalence of unemployment is usually measured using the unemployment rate, which is defined as the percentage of those in the labour force  who are unemployed. The unemployment rate is also used in  economic  studies and economic  indices  such as the  United States  Conference Boards  Index of Leading Indicators  as a measure of the state of  macroeconomics. The causes of unemployment are disputed.  Keynesian economics  emphasizes unemployment resulting from insufficient effective demand  for goods and services in the economy (cyclical unemployment). Others point to structural problems and inefficiencies inherent in labour markets;  structural unemployment  involves mismatches between demand and supply of laborers with the necessary skill set, sometimes induced by  technologies  or  globalisation.  Classical  orneo classical economics  tends to reject these explanations, and focuses more on rigidities imposed on the labor market from the outside, such as unionization, minimum wage laws, taxes, and other regulations that may discourage the hiring of workers (classical unemployment). Yet others see unemployment as largely due to voluntary choices by the unemployed and the time it takes to find a new job (frictional unemployment).  Behavioral economics  highlights phenomena such as  sticky wages  and  efficie ncy wages  which may lead to unemployment. There is also disagreement on how exactly to measure unemployment. Different countries experience different levels of unemployment; traditionally, the  United States  tends to experience lower unemployment levels than countries in the  European Union,[2]  although there is some variation there, with countries like the  UK  and  Denmark  outperforming  Italy  and France  and it also changes over time (e.g. the  Great Depression) throughout  economic cycles. Types of unemployment Economists  distinguish between various  types of unemployment, including  cyclical unemployment,  frictional unemployment,  structural unemployment  and  classical unemployment. Some additional types of unemployment that are occasionally mentioned are seasonal unemployment, hardcore unemployment, and hidden unemployment. Real-world unemployment may combine different types. The magnitude of each of these is difficult to measure, partly because they overlap. Though there have been several definitions of  voluntary  and  involuntary  unemployment in the economics literature, a simple distinction is often applied. Voluntary unemployment is attributed to the individuals decisions, whereas involuntary unemployment exists because of the socio-economic environment (including the market structure, government intervention, and the level of aggregate demand) in which individuals operate. In these terms, much or most of  frictional unemployment  is voluntary, since it reflects individual search behaviour. On the other hand, cyclical unemployment, structural unemployment, and classical unemployment are largely involuntary in nature. However, the existence of structural unemployment may reflect choices made by the unemployed in the past, while classical (natural) unemployment may result from the legislative and economic choices made by labour unions and/or political parties. So in practice, the distinction between voluntary and involuntary unemployment is hard to draw. The clearest cases of involuntary unemployment are those where there are fewer job vacancies than unemployed workers even when wages are allowed to adjust, so that even if all vacancies were to be filled, there would be unemployed workers. This is the case of cyclical unemployment, for which macroeconomic forces lead to microeconomic unemployment. Frictional unemployment Frictional unemployment  is the time period between jobs when a worker moves from one job to another. Frictional unemployment is an example of a productive part of the  economy, increasing both the workers long term  welfare  and  economic efficiency, and is also a type of  voluntary unemployment. Frictional unemployment is always present in an economy, so the level of involuntary unemployment is properly the unemployment rate minus the rate of frictional unemployment, which means that increases or decreases in unemployment are normally under-represented in the simple statistics. Classical unemployment Classical or real-wage unemployment occurs when real wages for a job are set above the market-clearing level, causing the number of job-seekers to exceed the number of vacancies. Libertarian economists like  F.A. Hayek  argued that unemployment increases the more the government intervenes into the economy to try to improve the conditions of those with jobs. For example,  minimum wage  laws raise the cost of labourers with few skills to above the market equilibrium, resulting in people who wish to work at the going rate but cannot as wage enforced is greater than their value as workers becoming unemployed.  They believed that laws restricting layoffs made businesses less likely to hire in the first place, as hiring becomes more risky, leaving many young people unemployed and unable to find work. Some, such as  Murray Rothbard,  suggest that even social taboos can prevent wages from falling to the market clearing level. Some economists theorize that this type of unemployment can be reduced by increasing the flexibility of wages (e.g., abolishing minimum wages or employee protection), to make the labor market more like a financial market Cyclical or Keynesian unemployment Cyclical or  Keynesian  unemployment, also known as deficient-demand unemployment, occurs when there is not enough aggregate demand in the economy. It gets its name because it varies with the  business cycle, though it can also be persistent, as during the  Great Depression  of the 1930s. Cyclical unemployment is caused by a  business cycle  recession, and wages not falling to meet the equilibrium level. Cyclical unemployment rises during economic downturns and falls when the economy improves. Keynesians argue that this type of unemployment exists due to inadequate effective  aggregate demand. Demand for most goods and services falls, less production is needed and consequently fewer workers are needed, wages do not fall to meet the equilibrium level, and mass unemployment results. Some consider this type of unemployment one type of frictional unemployment in which factors causing the friction are partially caused by some cyclical variables. For example, a surprise decrease in the money supply may shock participants in society. With cyclical unemployment, the number of unemployed workers exceeds the number of job vacancies, so that if even all open jobs were filled, some workers would remain unemployed. This kind of unemployment coincides with unused industrial capacity (unemployed capital goods).  Keynesian  economists see it as possibly being solved by government  deficit spending or by expansionary  monetary policy, which aims to increase non-governmental spending by lowering  interest rates. In contrast,  Austrian economists  argue that government spending and policies are the root cause of economic cycles and cyclical unemployment and should be reformed or removed. Classical economics  rejects the conception of cyclical unemployment, seeing the attainment of full employment of resources and potential output as the normal state of affairs. Structural unemployment Structural unemployment  occurs when a labor market is unable to provide jobs for everyone who wants one because there is a mismatch between the skills of the unemployed workers and the skills needed for the available jobs.[10] Structural unemployment is hard to separate empirically from frictional unemployment, except to say that it lasts longer. As with frictional unemployment, simple demand-side stimulus will not work to easily abolish this type of unemployment. Structural unemployment may also be encouraged to rise by persistent cyclical unemployment: if an economy suffers from long-lasting low aggregate demand, it means that many of the unemployed become disheartened, while their skills (including  job-searching  skills) become rusty and obsolete. Problems with debt may lead to  homelessness  and a fall into the vicious circle of  poverty. This means that they may not fit the job vacancies that are created when the economy recovers. Some economists see this scenario as occurring under British Prime Minister  Margaret Thatcher  during the 1970s and 1980s. The implication is that sustained  high  demand may  lower  structural unemployment. This theory of persistence in structural unemployment has been referred to as an example of  path dependence  or hysteresis. Much  technological unemployment  (e.g. due to the replacement of workers by machines) might be counted as structural unemployment. Alternatively, technological unemployment might refer to the way in which steady increases in labor productivity mean that fewer workers are needed to produce the same level of output every year. The fact that aggregate demand can be raised to deal with this problem suggests that this problem is instead one of cyclical unemployment. As indicated by  Okuns Law, the demand side must grow sufficiently quickly to absorb not only the growing labor force but also the workers made redundant by increased labor productivity. Otherwise, we see a  jobless recovery  such as those seen in the United States in both the early 1990s and the early 2000s. Seasonal unemployment may be seen as a kind of structural unemployment, since it is a type of unemployment that is linked to certain kinds of  jobs  (construction work, migratory farm work). The most-cited official unemployment measures erase this kind of unemployment from the statistics using seasonal adjustment techniques. Long-term unemployment This is normally defined, for instance in  European Union  statistics, as unemployment lasting for longer than one year. It is an important indicator of  social exclusion. Hidden unemployment Hidden, or covered, unemployment is the unemployment of potential workers that is not reflected in official unemployment statistics, due to the way the statistics are collected. In many countries only those who have no work but are actively looking for work (and/or qualifying for social security benefits) are counted as unemployed. Those who have given up looking for work (and sometimes those who are on Government retraining programmes) are not officially counted among the unemployed, even though they are not employed. The same applies to those who have taken  early retirement  to avoid being laid off, but would prefer to be working. The statistic also does not count the underemployed those with part time or seasonal jobs who would rather have full time jobs. Because of hidden unemployment, official statistics often underestimate unemployment rates. Full employment. In demand-based theory, it is possible to abolish cyclical unemployment by increasing the aggregate demand for products and workers. However, eventually the economy hits an inflation barrier imposed by the four other kinds of unemployment to the extent that they exist. Some demand theory economists see the inflation barrier as corresponding to the  natural rate of unemployment. The natural rate of unemployment is defined as the rate of unemployment that exists when the labor market is in equilibrium and there is pressure for neither rising inflation rates nor falling inflation rates. An alternative technical term for this rate is the  NAIRU  or the Non-Accelerating Inflation Rate of Unemployment. No matter what its name, demand theory holds that this means that if the unemployment rate gets too low, inflation will get worse and worse (accelerate) in the absence of wage and price controls (incomes policies). One of the major problems with the  NAIRU  theory is that no one knows exactly what the NAIRU is (while it clearly changes over time). The margin of error can be quite high relative to the actual unemployment rate, making it hard to use the NAIRU in policy-making. Another, normative, definition of full employment might be called the  ideal  unemployment rate. It would exclude all types of unemployment that represent forms of inefficiency. This type of full employment unemployment would correspond to only frictional unemployment (excluding that part encouraging the  McJobs  management strategy) and would thus be very low. However, it would be impossible to attain this full-employment target using only demand-side  Keynesian  stimulus without getting below the  NAIRU  and suffering from accelerating inflation (absent incomes policies). Training programs aimed at fighting structural unemployment would help here. To the extent that hidden unemployment exists, it implies that official unemployment statistics provide a poor guide to what unemployment rate coincides with full employment. Causes of unemployment. Causes of frictional unemployment Frictional unemployment may be a result of the following reasons: Mobility of labour: People generally seek another job either because they are fired from the existing job or because they are they want to get a better job. In the transition period they are unemployed. Expansion of the Labour force Every year more and more individuals join the labor force. During the phase of their job search they are unemployed.   Many economists have termed frictional unemployment a sign of economic well being. Frictional unemployment can exist only in a fast growing economy where the labor force is expanding, mobile, flexible and adaptable.  People generally seek another job either because they are fired from the existing job or because they are they want to get a better job. In the transition period they are unemployed. Expansion of the Labour force Every year more and more individuals join the labor force. During the phase of their job search they are unemployed.   Many economists have termed frictional unemployment a sign of economic well being. Frictional unemployment can exist only in a fast growing economy where the labor force is expanding, mobile, flexible and adaptable.   Labour mobility In the presence of perfect information and mobility of labor, people out of job can easily find in an industry, which is in need of labor. This way, structural unemployment may be reduced. Structure of the regional economy If certain industries are closing down then it may so happen that industries may get concentrated in a certain part of the nation. This may make employment difficult and increase the resulting structural unemployment.   High Gross Domestic Product, it is seen, is not indicative of a low structural unemployment : The main reason for the high level of unemployment is technological progress. Dont get me wrong; progress is good and it makes life easier. But if every year we produce the same amount of goods with fewer people in a few years far less working hours are needed to produce all the goods that are required. The historical trend has been to use less and less working hours per week.  If  we do  not  continue this trend, the supply of working hours is greater than the demand. An  oversupply  of working hours means they are worth less, wages and salaries get reduced. Also many persons are out of work; their working hours are no longer needed. Those that are out of work have no income and therefore  the demand for goods  goes down. With fewer sales, less gets produced, more persons are laid off. This is a vicious circle that accelerates unemployment and produces crime; because some will turn to crime to obtain income . Causes Of Unemployment In Pakistan: Economy of an individual is at the utmost priority of every democratic as well as welfare state. Since the dawn of human history, individual needs have been prioritized by every human being. These individual needs can be met by proper sources of employment. After the transformation of the world from a feudal to an industrial society, the needs of an individual have risen sharply, giving due importance to finance.In Pakistan, due to gigantic rise in population, individual finances have been disturbed a lot. This is because of rising unemployment. The major cause of unemployment in Pakistan are following. The first cause of unemployment or joblessness  in Pakistan is worsening law and order situation. Owing to this negative social phenomenon, foreign direct investment is sliding down to the bottom. According to the economic survey of Pakistan, in the current decade FDI was minimum last year.Also investors are loosing confidence in the political and economic system of the country therefore they are reluctant to invest in any new business venture. Resultantly, new jobs are not generating while the job seekers are rising continuously in the country. Secondly, Agriculture is account for the maximum job provision in the country. Agriculture sector is facing severe challenges of water shortage, climatic changes and technological backwardness in recent years. These factors have hit the per acre yield negatively which caused loosing of jobs of several people. In 2009-10, agriculture showed a growth of only 2% against the target of 3.8% while nearly 62% of Pakistan population is living in rural areas, and is directly or indirectly linked with agriculture for their livelihood. Thirdly, Industry is also a heaven for educated as well as semi-educated labour force in the country. Pakistan industry is short listing its labour because of gradual decrease in demand as well as acute energy shortage. Energy shortfall crosses 5500 MW at time causing severe damage to production capacity. Fourthly, World economic depression coupled with American war against Terror has also put negative impacts on our economy. It has not only doubled our expenditures on military front but also defaced Pakistans image in international arena. These factors have put international investment in Pakistan at risk. Therefore, Pakistan is not attracting new investment causing unemployment in the country. Fifthly,  United States of America spent 368 billion in 2007 on research and development whereas Pakistans attention towards this sector is the least. By spending on education and research, we can create more specialized fields thus generating more jobs. In the 2010 budget, Pakistan has earmarked only 2% of its GDP on education which is the lowest in whole of the region. Sixthly, Population increase is also a cause of unemployment in Pakistan. Till 2010, Pakistans population is 173.54 million wheras most of the population is unable to survive in the financial race because of illiteracy. In Spite of these factors poor governance, deep rooted corruption, faulty educational system, lack of quality educational institutions and feudalism are also aggravating the situation further. Finally, we can hold the government responsible for the its poor performance in financial sector. Poor governance have marred the performance of our economic sector by every side and government has taken only cosmetic measures to redress the problem. Dr. Ishrat Hussain suggestions to improve the governance  have been put  on the backburner. Economy of an individual is at the utmost priority of every democratic as well as welfare state. Since the dawn of human history, individual needs have been prioritized by every human being. These individual needs can be met by proper sources of employment. After the transformation of the world from a feudal to an industrial society, the needs of an individual have risen sharply, giving due importance to finance.In Pakistan, due to gigantic rise in population, individual finances have been disturbed a lot. This is because of rising unemployment. The major cause of unemployment in Pakistan are following. The first cause of unemployment or joblessness  in Pakistan is worsening law and order situation. Owing to this negative social phenomenon, foreign direct investment is sliding down to the bottom. According to the economic survey of Pakistan, in the current decade FDI was minimum last year.Also investors are loosing confidence in the political and economic system of the country therefore they are reluctant to invest in any new business venture. Resultantly, new jobs are not generating while the job seekers are rising continuously in the country. Secondly, Agriculture is account for the maximum job provision in the country. Agriculture sector is facing severe challenges of water shortage, climatic changes and technological backwardness in recent years. These factors have hit the per acre yield negatively which caused loosing of jobs of several people. In 2009-10, agriculture showed a growth of only 2% against the target of 3.8% while nearly 62% of Pakistan population is living in rural areas, and is directly or indirectly linked with agriculture for their livelihood. Thirdly, Industry is also a heaven for educated as well as semi-educated labour force in the country. Pakistan industry is short listing its labour because of gradual decrease in demand as well as acute energy shortage. Energy shortfall crosses 5500 MW at time causing severe damage to production capacity. Fourthly, World economic depression coupled with American war against Terror has also put negative impacts on our economy. It has not only doubled our expenditures on military front but also defaced Pakistans image in international arena. These factors have put international investment in Pakistan at risk. Therefore, Pakistan is not attracting new investment causing unemployment in the country. Fifthly,  United States of America spent 368 billion in 2007 on research and development whereas Pakistans attention towards this sector is the least. By spending on education and research, we can create more specialized fields thus generating more jobs. In the 2010 budget, Pakistan has earmarked only 2% of its GDP on education which is the lowest in whole of the region. Sixthly, Population increase is also a cause of unemployment in Pakistan. Till 2010, Pakistans population is 173.54 million wheras most of the population is unable to survive in the financial race because of illiteracy. In Spite of these factors poor governance, deep rooted corruption, faulty educational system, lack of quality educational institutions and feudalism are also aggravating the situation further. Finally, we can hold the government responsible for the its poor performance in financial sector. Poor governance have marred the performance of our economic sector by every side and government has taken only cosmetic measures to redress the problem. Dr. Ishrat Hussain suggestions to improve the governance  have been put  on the backburner. Five steps to helping Pakistans educated unemployed: While the problem of individuals who are highly educated but unemployed can be found around the world, the situation in Pakistan is particularly dire and urgent: in 1994, nearly half of the unemployed in Pakistan were educated. This form of unemployment is not only expensive, since it wastes valuable education dollars, it is also socially disruptive. Jobless but educated youth often become hopeless for any kind of future in Pakistan, or in a growing number of cases, become part of the brain drain and leave for countries in industrialized nations where there are more employment opportunities. Part of the problem is the lack of emphasis on vocational and technical training and too much stress on abstract knowledge. In Pakistan, about 323,000 students pass the matriculation exam yearly. Out of these students, it is estimated that over half will choose post-secondary education and only 20 percent will seek vocational training or business education. Of those who choose the path to higher education, the majority enter the general bachelors and masters degree programs with little to no career counseling. This is explained by the fact that the state provides a 91 percent subsidy to higher education while recovering only nine percent of the total cost through fees. Therefore, it is very easy to obtain higher academic education in Pakistan. The problem though is that this education does not teach skills that will be marketable in the job market after graduation, thus creating a mismatch between the degrees students earn and the jobs available to them, especially in the private sector. The other option is to seek employment with the government. This too, however, is problematic, since regional quotas and financial constraints make the pool of jobs possibly even smaller than in the private sector. As for those who enter the job market right after high school, studies indicate that only two-thirds of them are able to find jobs, while the rest continue to be unemployed. In addition, 20,000 to 30,000 intermediate-level students fail to find jobs each year. However, even in faculties that offer technical training, the skills taught are sorely lacking. One example is in the sciences. Only one-quarter of matriculating students pursue further education in science. Among those who decide to pursue a career in engineering, the only option the Pakistani Universities of Engineering and Technology make available is a Bachelors of Science in engineering. That means these schools act as engineering colleges rather than universities, by churning out graduates with a bachelors degree level education and completely ignoring post-graduate training. To make the problem worse, there is an too much emphasis on traditional areas like civil, mechanical and electrical engineering, while areas like computer and software engineering, which offer more opportunities, are generally ignored. This deals a nasty blow to young, bright students who have the interest and intelligence to succeed in such fields which are more likely to provide the promise of a job than in the traditional domains of engineering. To bridge the yawning gap between qualified Pakistanis and the countrys job market, a number of urgent steps need to be taken to reform the educational system. Here are five that can help: 1. After students pass the Matriculation level, they should be required to take a National Aptitude. This will create two streams of students. One will include those students who will pursue general education and the other technical/vocational training. This is why the test must be designed to identify students with an aptitude for technical work so that a larger number of youth can be directed towards training programs and apprenticeship schemes. 2. Students who pursue higher university education should be more focused on research. Only the brightest and the most talented students who show an aptitude for scholarly research should be encouraged to choose higher university education. 3. Employment in the public sector should not be based on quotas, but rather on merit. 4. There must be career counseling and guidance provided to youth, so that trained experts can share their knowledge and help steer the next generation to fields that will benefit them and the country. 5. The Pakistani government should conduct labor market surveys to provide students with information about job prospects, labor market requirements and job descriptions. Armed with this information, students will be able to make better choices for their future. Rate Of unemployment in Pakistan: Differnce between the two previous governments Efforts Made By Government: GOVT PURSUING POLICIES TO REDUCE UNEMPLOYMENT: PAKISTANI PM GILANI ISLAMABAD, Mar 4 (NNN-APP) Prime Minister Syed Yusuf Raza Gilani has said that the government has devised a comprehensive policy for achieving sustainable economic growth. Addressing participants of the 92nd National Management Course here Wednesday, he said the government has designed its polices keeping in view the objective to reduce poverty, unemployment and meet the targets set out in Millennium Development Goals. He said the effective policy implementation to stabilize the country?s economy met with success in arresting the downward trend and the difficulties in this regard had been largely contained. It is heartening to note that all economic indicators are now showing positive trend, he added. ? Governance is a shared responsibility of all the state institutions at all levels and the people can only be satisfied when their needs and problems are resolved at their doorstep,? he said adding this required coordination and harmonious relationship among all the institutions with the objective to serve the common man. He underlined the need for every institution to function within its own ambit and discharge its responsibilities with sincerity of purpose. Gilani said the concept of good governance has gained much importance in the present day where the public representatives implement an agenda which has the backing of mandate. The key role in this regard is played by the civil servants as they are entrusted with the role of policy inputs and implementation of government?s initiatives, he added. He said best practices and success stories from the private sector and the civil society have to be incorporated in the government?s working. Motivation and initiatives are incentives of proper service delivery at the grassroots level. Similarly, the efficiency of the government agenda is based on the quality of governance, he observed. If good governance is lacking the system becomes dysfunctional and service delivery is unattainable. Inculcation of a spirit of public service must be the hallmark of your professional approach while discharging responsibilities at different government positions, he commented. Gilani said primary responsibility as state functionaries is to perform duty with integrity, justice and honesty. He quoted from the address of Quaid-e-Azam to the gazetted officers on 25th March, 1948: ?Of course you must be loyal to the Government that is in power. The second point is that of your conduct and dealings with the people in various departments, in which you may be: wipe off that past reputation; you are not rulers. You do not belong to the ruling class; you belong to the servants. Make the people feel that you are their servants and friends, maintain the highest standard of honour, integrity, justice and fair-play. If you do that, people will have confidence and trust in you and will look upon you as friends and well wishers?.   The Prime Minister said the government is striving for a democratic, prosperous and progressive Pakistan which is the anchor of peace and stability for the entire South Asian region. ?Every country has its unique features, which require indigenous solutions. In our case too, we need to solve our problems by devising solutions according to our own conditions. That is where the role of civil servant is most crucial,? he added. He said it is important that outdated and obstructive rules and regulations are revisited from time to time. The implementation level of public policies itself is a big challenge before the civil servants. He said policies are formulated with zeal and enthusiasm but at times their implementation is too slow or delayed and thereby the original purpose of the agenda is either lost or becomes irrelevant. He said the government is committed to improving the capabilities of the civil servants to become responsive in delivering basic public services to the common citizens in an effi

Polymorphisms of Crystalline Solids :: Chemistry Engineering Science Essays

Polymorphisms of Crystalline Solids Polymorphism is the phenomenon where a compound can precipitate to form numerous crystal structures. Due to space and time limitations, we have decided to confine the scope of this paper to only include polymorphisms of crystalline solids and not include polymorphisms associated with DNA and genetic related topics. It is important in many areas of technology, that people are aware of the presence of polymorphisms and the properties of the different polymorphisms. The different crystalline structures each have different physical properties, which can change the use of the chemical. The physical properties that may differ from one polymorphism to another include: solubility, density, melting point and even color. One of the variables that affect the crystallization process is the solvent that is used in the precipitation. The solvent may cause less stable polymorphisms to form instead of those that are more stable. Predictions can be made as to which polymorphism wil l be formed based on the solvent and its properties. The mixing conditions also have an affect on the formation of various polymorphisms. (Meyerson) Different polymorphisms can also be formed by manipulating the solute concentrations, flows rates, and equipment configurations. Research involving polymorphisms is becoming increasingly important to the pharmaceutical industry due to the number of pharmaceuticals that are prone to polymorphisms, patents on certain polymorphisms, the differing bioavailability of the polymorphisms and the differing effects of the polymorphisms on the body. (Meyerson) During the 1970’s, G.M.J. Schmidt coined the term crystal engineering and defined it as predicting the crystal structure of solid-state organic molecules (Sharma). In 1989, G.R. Desiraju revised the meaning as the â€Å" ‘the understanding of intermolecular interactions in the context of crystal packing and in the legalization of such understanding and the design of new solids with desired physical and chemical properties’ † (Sharma). Crystal engineering has grown to encompass the study of the hardness and color of solids, nanotechnology, protein receptor binding, pharmaceutical development, and polymorphisms (Sharma). Crystals are used in many areas of science, pharmaceuticals, and materials engineering. Crystals differ from many other organic and inorganic materials because of their ability to form polymorphisms.